Пакистан и интеграционные процессы в Центральной Азии

В данной статье рассматривается внешнеполитическая стратегия Пакистана в отношении стран Центральной Азии в рамках трех многосторонних структур – ОЭС, ШОС, ОИК

Діалогізм як умова реалізації свободи в іудаїзмі

У статті розглядається проблема співвідношення феномена свободи з такою формою реалізації людської екзистенції, як діалог. Для іудаїзму виявами діалогу на рівні розкриття зв'язку "Я" з "абсолютним Ти" є молитва та пророцтво. Автор доводить, що ці форми діалогу у свій власний спосіб виявляють механізми актуалізації індивідуальної та колективної свободи. Метою свободи виступає повнота розкриття призначення існування людини та людства у світі.In the article examines the problem of comparing the phenomenon of freedom with a form of human realization of existence, such as dialog. For Judaism, prayer and prophecy are the opening to the connection of "I" and the absolute "You". These forms of dialog, in their own way, appear to be mechanisms of the actualization of individual and collective freedom. The goal of this freedom appears to be the full understanding of the purpose of man and humanity in the world

Картина пекла в альтернативах православно-есхатологічної думки.

У статті Г.Панкова «Картина пекла в альтернативах православно-есхатологічної думки” аналізується уявлення про пекло в ортодоксальній традиції християнської картини світу та його критика в аспекті гуманізму з боку окремих послідовників неортодоксальної православно-есхатологічної думки. Автором розкривається аксіологічне напруження між юридичним витлумаченням справедливості та етичною концепцією любові та милосердя до християнської есхатології. Гуманістична альтернатива ортодоксального трактування пекла демонструється на прикладі концепції Григорія Нісського, М.О. Бердяєва та Є.М. Трубецького.В статье Г.Панкова «Картина ада в альтернативах православно-эсхатологической мысли" анализируется представление об аде в ортодоксальной традиции христианской картины мира и его критика в аспекте гуманизма со стороны отдельных последователей неортодоксальные православно-эсхатологической мысли. Автором раскрывается аксиологическая напряжение между юридическим истолкование справедливости и этической концепцией любви и милосердия к христианской эсхатологии. Гуманистическая альтернатива ортодоксального трактовка ада демонстрируется на примере концепции Григория Нисского, М.О. Бердяева и Е.М. Трубецкого.In the article G.Pankov «The picture of the underworld in alternatives of orthodox and eskhatological conception» an idea of the underworld in orthodox tradition of christian picture of the world and its criticism in the aspect of humanism from the individual followers of non-orthodox christian-eskhatological idea is analysed. The author opens up axiological tension between juridical interpretation of justice and ethics conception of love and mercy in relation to christian eskhatology. Humanistic alternative of orthodox interpretation of the underworld is demonstrated on the example of conception by Grigory Nisskiy, N.A. Berdyaev, E.N.Trubeckoy

Розвиток етнографії в Наддніпрянській Україні наприкінці XIX – на початку XX століття (історіографічний аспект)

The researcher elucidates in detail the development of the Ukrainian ethnography (in a historiographical aspect) using the examples of the prominent personalities with their guiding works in this field. He makes a conclusion about the most important achievement of the ethnographers of a period ca. 1900s – the transition from the descriptive approach to the historically comparative method in the Ukrainian ethnography

Значение и сущность знаний в экономике Украины

Проанализированы взгляды различных авторов на значение и сущность знаний в экономике Украины. Проведены исследования систем классифицирования современной отрасли экономической науки «экономика знаний». Результатом исследований является уточнение термина, а также введение новых типов классификации знаний.Проаналізовані погляди різних авторів на значення і сутність знань в економіці України. Проведені дослідження систем класифікації сучасної галузі економічної науки «економіка знань». Результатом дослідження є уточнення терміну, а також введення нових типів класифікації знань.The paper analyzes the views of different authors on the importance and essence of knowledge in the economy of Ukraine. The system of classification of such branch of the economic science as “knowledge economy” has been investigated. The result of investigation is the term specification, as wel as the introduction of new types of knowledge classification

Описание города Нежина, его улиц и домов. Перепись населения по домам, составленная 15 февраля 1766 г. в городской магистратуре

Сьомий випуск наукової збірки “Ніжинська старовина” присвячений публікації пам’ятки середини ХІХ ст. – копії опису міста Ніжина 1766 року. Збірник містить публікацію тексту документу, супровідну статтю і покажчик географічних назв і топоніміки. Підготовка до друку, зауваження до тексту документа та покажчик топонімів і географічних назв С. Зозулі та О. Морозова

Potential for CO2 sequestration and enhanced coalbed methane production in the Netherlands

This study investigated the technical and economic feasibility of using CO2 for the enhanced production of coal bed methane (ECBM) in the Netherlands. This concept could lead to both CO2 storage by adsorbing CO2 in deep coal layers that are not suitable for mining, as well as production of methane. For every two molecules of CO2 injected, roughly one molecule of methane is produced. The work included an investigation of the potential CBM reserves in the Dutch underground and the related CO2 storage potential in deep coal layers. The latter was also supported by laboratory experiments on the adsorption capacity of coal. Furthermore, an economic evaluation of ECBM recovery was made by analysing the costs of capturing CO2 from major stationary sources and CO2 transport, modelling the production of ECBM using CO2 injection with reservoir simulations and system analyses to investigate the costs (and it's sensitivities) of gas production. Furthermore, the costs of on-site hydrogen and power production (including on site CO2 removal and injection) were evaluated. CO2 sources in the Netherlands have been inventoried. Annually 3.4 Mtonne CO2 can be captured from chemical installations and transported to sequestration locations at 15 /tonne. Another 55 Mtonne from power generating facilities can be delivered at 40 to 80 /tonne. The technical potential of CBM in the Dutch underground is significant: a maximum reserve of about 60 EJ is stored in coal layers up to a depth of 2000 m. This figure should be compared to the current annual energy consumption of the Netherlands (about 3 EJ) or the known reserves of natural gas in the Netherlands (about 70 EJ in 1994). These reserves are concentrated in four main areas in the Netherlands: Zuid Limburg, the Peel area, the Achterhoek area and Zeeland. The CO2 storage potential could be about 8 Gtonne. This storage potential should be compared to the annual CO2 emissions of the Netherlands: about 180 Mtonne. This means, theoretically, that the total CO2 emissions of the Netherlands could be stored in coal layers for over 40 years and that CBM could meet the total national energy demand of the Netherlands for 20 years. However, it is still uncertain to what extent these reserves can be accessed. With conservative assumptions regarding the potential completion and recovery rate of CBM from coal layers by means of drilling and CO2 injection, as well as by limiting the ECBM recovery to a depth range of 500 -- 1500 metres, the 'proven' reserves could be limited to 0.3 EJ and the 'possible' reserves up to about 3.9 EJ. The accompanying CO2 that can be sequestrated than lays between 54 Mtonne and 0.6 Gtonne. Although those figures are far more modest than the 'theoretical' potential, they are still significant. In case the 'possible' reserves can be accessed, ECBM could supply 5% of the current national energy use on a more than carbon neutral basis for over 25 years. Given the Kyoto targets for 2010, or the national targets for renewable energy, this is a very significant amount. Without any subsidies or carbon taxes, the cost levels for ECBM recovery ranges from 3.5 to 6.5 /GJ methane produced. These costs levels come close to the projected natural gas prices in Europe in a timeframe of 10 to 20 years, which are projected to be between 2.5 and 3.2 /GJ. Inclusion of a carbon tax (or bonus) of 25 /tonne CO2 sequestrated, lowers the price of ECBM to a competitive 1.5 to 4 ?/GJ. The cost level of CO2 sequestration through ECBM is comparable with projected cost levels for CO2 storage in aquifer traps(Steinberg and Cheng 1989) in case the CBM would be sold for current natural gas prices. If the produced CBM is used for electricity or hydrogen production on top of the CBM field, the resulting CO2 can be injected in the coal directly (thereby eliminating CO2 transport costs). CO2 removal from a gas engine or a combined cycle is currently more expensive when compared to CO2 from industrial processes that must be transported to the CBM field. But a (SOFC) fuel cell produces a pure and therefore much cheaper CO2 stream. Although SOFC fuel cells are not fully commercially available and have high capital costs, they could lead to somewhat lower costs of electricity. Without CO2 bonus, on site power generation is more expensive than grid prices for the systems considered. But when a CO2 bonus of 25 /tonne CO2 is assumed, power generation costs are reduced below 3 cent/kWh, which is lower than the current average 3.2 cent/kWh. On the longer term, when SOFC fuel cells could become cheaper, on site power generation could become a (very) attractive alternative. On site (smaller scale) hydrogen production gives similar results. Capital costs for smaller scale on site hydrogen production are relatively high, but with a CO2 bonus of 25 /tonne, hydrogen costs could be lower than current production costs from coal and comparable to production costs from natural gas. Overall, the results of the economic evaluation indicate that CBM by means of enhanced recovery by CO2 injection in deep coal layers can be performed at competitive cost levels when the right system configurations are chosen. A, relatively modest, carbon tax (or 'bonus') of 25 /tonne could easily tick the balance in favour of ECBM recovery in Dutch conditions on short term already. However, a number of important (geo) technical and geological factors play a key role in whether these cost levels can be obtained or not. The dominating factors in the costs are the drilling costs. In case the costs per wellhead appear to be higher than assumed here, the economic performance of the system deteriorates. On the other hand innovations in drilling techniques, gaining more experience with the required drilling methods over time and obtaining 'economies of scale' by drilling relatively large numbers of wells in a short time to exploit larger CBM fields may bring drilling costs (and thus CBM production costs) down considerably. Regarding to the geology, the CBM potential and the actual accessibility of the, theoretical, coal reserves and the predicted presence of producable CBM gas in the coal layers is subject to broad ranges. More detailed surveys of the Dutch underground are needed to reduce uncertainties about CBM gas reserves. This can be obtained by seismic research and obtaining more and better samples of the Dutch underground. Such research is absolutely essential before ECBM is developed in the Netherlands on a significant scale. In conclusion, this study showed that ECBM is likely to become an economically feasible option for the Netherlands on relatively short term. It could at least play a significant (and potentially very large) role in reducing greenhouse gas emission levels for a time period of about 50 years. Although the estimates of energy reserves in the form of CBM are uncertain, they are potentially very significant (varying from 6 -- 60 EJ). The potential CO2 storage capacity is (very) large as well (1-8 Gtonne of CO2). Given the fact that CO2 binds well to the coal matrix, that deep coal layers are unlikely to be accessed for mining or other activities in the future and that CO2 storage with ECBM delivers a clean fossil fuel as a by-product, coal layers may be a preferable CO2 storage medium when compared to (saline) aquifers, empty gas fields or in deep oceans. Therefore, this option deserves further development and study. A mix of more detailed geological surveys combined with getting good quality samples, laboratory experiments, system studies on implementation scenarios and a pilot project (with a special focus on drilling techniques) is recommended

Renewable Energy

This chapter presents an in-depth examination of major renewable energy technologies, including their installed capacity and energy supply in 2009 , the current state of market and technology development, their economic and financial feasibility in 2009 and in the near future, as well as major issues they may face relative to their sustainability or implementation. Renewable energy sources have been important for humankind since the beginning of civilization. For centuries, biomass has been used for heating, cooking, steam generation, and power production; solar energy has been used for heating and drying; geothermal energy has been used for hot water supplies; hydropower, for movement; and wind energy, for pumping and irrigation. For many decades renewable energy sources have also been used to produce electricity or other modern energy carriers

World wide biomass resources

In a wide variety of scenarios, policy strategies, and studies that address the future world energy demand and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, biomass is considered to play a major role as renewable energy carrier. Over the past decades, the modern use of biomass has increased rapidly in many parts of the world and many countries have ambitious targets for further biomass utilization in the light of the Kyoto GHG reduction targets. Rising oil prices have also increased the level of interest in bioenergy